INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

· Biology (gr. Bios – life, logos – discourse or science)
· Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) – Father of Biology
· Botany (Phytology) (Gr. Botane – shrub) – Study related to plants.
· Theophrastus (370 – 285 BC) – Father of Botany. Described 480 kinds of plants in 'Historia Plantarum'
· Lamark in France and Treviranus in Germany independently corned the term Biology.

Various Branches of Biology are mentioned below:

Branches	Study of the
Actinobilogy or Radiobiology	Effects of radiation on Organisms
Agronomy	Management of farms, Cultivation of field crops
Argostology	Grasses
Algology (Phycology)	Algae
Anatomy	The internal structure of plant parts
Anthology	Flowers
Arbariculture	Cultivation of ornamental trees and shrubs
Autecology	Ecology of an individual species and its population
Bacteriology	Bacteria
Biochemistry or Phytochemistry	Chemical Constituting the body of an organism and chemical reactions going in them
Biotechnology	Utilization of living organism or substance obtained from the industrial process
Bryology	Bryophytes
Carcinology	Malignant tissues, tumours, and cancer
Chorology	Geographical distribution of organisms
Cryobiology	Life at low temperatures
Chemotaxonomy	Classification of plants on the basis of their chemical constituents
Cytology	Detail cell structure
Dendrochronology	Estimation of the age of the trees, counting annual rings
Dendrology	Shrubs and trees
Economic botany	Utilization of the plants and plants products
Edaphology or Edaphobiology or Pedology or Pedobiology	(Life in) soil
Embryology	Development of egg after fertilization and formation of the embryo. Development of eggs after fertilization and formation of the embryo
Ethnobotany	Relationship between primitive people and plants. Relationship between the primitive people and plants
Ethology	Animal behaviour
Etiology	Cause of disease
Exobiology	Life on other planets
Ecology	The reciprocal relationship between organisms and their environment. The reciprocal relationship between organisms and their environment.
Floriculture	Cultivation of flower yielding plant Cultivation of flower yielding plants
Forestry or Silviculture	Development of forest and utilization of forest products
Genecology	Genetic diversity within a species in relation to the climate or Genetic diversity within a species in relation to the climate or soil
Genetic Engineering	Genetic manipulations produce an organism with a new combination of properties. Genetic manipulations to produce an organism with a new combination of properties
Genetics	Heredity and Variations
Genotobiotics	Germ–free life
Gerontology	Process of ageing or growing age
Histology	Tissue structure
Horticulture	Propagation of plants for fruits and ornamental value
Immunology	Immunity
Karylogy	Nucleus
Karyotaxonomy	Classification based on Nucleus and nucleus components
Lichenology	Lichen
Limnology	(Life in) Freshwater
Microbiology	Microorganisms
Morphology	Forms, structure, and development of their parts.
Morphogenesis	Changes during development and differentiation
Mycology (Mycetology)	Fungi
Olericulture	Cultivation of vegetables. Cultivation of vegetables
Oncology	Tumors
Palaeobotany	Plantlife as it existed in the past based on the study of fossils
Parasitology	Parasite
Pathology (Phytopathology)	Pathogens (disease-causing organisms)
Pteridology (Pterology)	Pteridophytes
Phycology (Algology)	Algae
Phylogeny	Evolutionary relationship among different groups of organisms
Phytogeography	Distribution of plants on earth
Palynology	Pollen grains
Pomology	Fruits and fruit yielding plants
Palaeontology	Study of fossils
Protistology	Protists
Serology	Serum and antigen – anti- body interactions
Silviculture	Cultivation of timber yielding plants.
Space biology	Life on other planets
Spermology (seed biology)	Seeds
Synecology	Ecology of communities
Taxonomy	Classification, arrangement, identification, and nomenclatures (naming).
Teleology	Explanation of phenomenon in terms of purpose and utility or need of an organism. e.g. Stem bends towards light because it needs light
Teratology	Abnormal embryonic disease
Trophology	Food and nutrition
Virology	Virus
Xylotomy	Xylem vessels
Zymology	Fermentation
Zootechny	Science of breeding and domestication of animals

Basic Characters of Living Organism

A. Protoplasm: without protoplasm, life has no existence. All vital activities of cells are performed in protoplasm so it is defined as the physical basis of life by Huxley.

B. Cellular structure: All living organisms are made up of cells. So the cell is the basic unit of life.

C. Growth: Growth is the irreversible increase in the size of the cell, whereas development is the maturation of function.

D. Nutrition and metabolism:
a. Catabolism: involves breakdowns of the substance

E.g. respiration
b. Anabolism: Constructive metabolism, involves the synthesis of substances

E.g. photosynthesis.
Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism

· Autotrophic organisms: These organisms can prepare their food themselves.

Eg. green plant can prepare their food themselves by the process of photosynthesis.

· Heterotrophic organisms: These organisms cannot prepare their food themselves so they depend upon autotrophy for their food.

Eg. Animals.

· Animals and non-green plants (eg. fungi i.e. fungi don't have chlorophyll) exhibit heterotrophic nutrition.

· Saprophytic nutrition: It is a type of heterotrophic nutrition in which an organism gets nutrients from dead and decaying materials

Eg. fungi.

· Herbivorous animals: These are those animals which feed on plant materials eg. horses, rabbits, etc.

· Carnivorous animals: These are flesh-eating or meat-eating animals

Eg. lions.

E. Reproduction: Reproduction is always within the same species
a. Sexual reproduction: formation of male and female gametes (sperms & ova)

b. Vegetative reproduction: Formation of new species from the vegetative structure of the existing one.

F. Homeostatic response: Internal self-regulatory mechanisms, which helps in maintaining a favourable internal environment in spite of variation in the external environment

G. Irritability:
· It is the ability of an organism to respond to stimuli.
· Any change in environment is called the stimulus and the response of an organism to the stimulus is called irritability. eg. contraction and expansion of pupil due to change in intensity of light is an example of sensitivity or irritability.

H. Repair of injured part: A living organism can repair an injured part but a non-living organism cannot do so.

I. Ageing and death: Every living organism has a definite life span at the end of which it dies.

Scientists and their contribution

· Schleiden and Schwann: Formulated and proposed cell theory.
· Robert Brown: Discovered nucleus, and Brownian movement (Characteristic dancing of cell particles) in the cell.
· Fontana: Discovered Nucleolus
· Robert Hook: Father of Cytology, Discovered cells, Studied thin slicks of bottle cork Actually, he discovered cell walls but not cells. (Non-living cell)
· Stephan Hales: Father of phytophysiology
· Beadle and Tatum: Purposed one gene one-enzyme theory
· Alexander Fleming: Discovered penicillin and isolated it from Penicillium notatum
· FC Went: Carried out Avena curvature test (Auxin)
· Aristotle: Father of biology, father of zoology, founder of embryology, founder of taxonomy
· Theophrastus: Father of botany. He wrote a book "Historia Plantarum ''
· John Ray: Coined the term species
· Bentham and Hooker: Proposed natural system of classification
· Carolus Linnaeus: Father of taxonomy, Propounded 2- system classification, the introduction of the binomial system of nomenclature, the artificial system of classification
· Lamark and Treviranus: Coined the term biology
· Purkinjee: Proposed the term protoplasm
· C.D. Duve: Discovered lysosome
· Nawaschin: Discovered double fertilization in angiosperms (Lilium and fritillaria)
· Huxley: Proposed protoplasm as the physical basis of life
· R. Virchow: Proposed (Cell lineage) which states that all cells arise from preexisting cells (Omnis cellula e cellula)
· Bateson: Father of modern genetics
· Tansley: Coined the term ecosystem
· Altman: Discovered mitochondria
· Benda: Named mitochondria
· L. Pasteur: Give the "Germ theory of disease''
· Strasburger: Observed and described fertilization in plants
· Reiter: Coined the term ecology
· Ivanowski: Give scientific proof for the existence of the virus
· Mendel: Founder of principles of genetics. The so-called father of Genetics
· Leder berg and Tatum: Discovered sexual reproduction in bacteria
· Watson & Crick: Gave doubled Helix model of DNA (Noble prize in 1962)
· H.A Krebs: Described TCA (Tricarboxylic acid cycle) or citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
· W. Flemming: Described Mitosis
· Farmer and Moore: Coined the term Meiosis
· F. Griffith: Discovered genetic transformation in Bacteria genetic transformation on bacteria
· T.H. Morgan: State the importance of chromosome in the transmission of heredity
· Yabuta and Sumiki: Isolated gibberellins in crystalline form Gibberelia fujikuroi (Fungus)
· Park and Biggins: Isolated Quantasomes
· Hatch and Slack: Proposed dicarboxylic acid pathway (Hatch and Slack cycle C4 Cycle)
· H.G. Khorana: Artificial synthesis of gene and discovered DNA ligase enzyme.
· Empedocles (495 - 425 BC): Is the father of the concept of evolution.
· Edward Jenner: Father of immunology.
· Hippocrates: Father of medicine
· Hugo de Vries: Mutation theory of evolution.
· Leonardo da Vinci: Father of palaeontology. He gave the idea of fossils.
· Robert Koch: Father of Bacteriology and bacteriological techniques, pure cultural techniques, and medical microbiology.
· Thomas Addison: Father of Endocrinology.
Tools and Technique In botany
· Electron microscope: It's used to study the ultrastructure of nucleus and cell organelles. It revealed the presence of ribosome
· X-ray diffraction: Use of X-ray to study the dimensions of DNA
· Autoradiography: Substitution of radioisotope such as C14, H3, P32 as a tracer molecule. It is used to detect the pathway of chemical reaction
· Phase contrast microscope: For observing a living cell
· Potometer: To measure the transpiration rate
· Auxanometer: It is used to measure growth
· Osmometer: To measure the osmotic pressure.
· Porometer: To measure the stomatal frequency.
· Phytotron: A device in which plants are grown under controlled conditions.
· Hydroponics: Hydroponics or soil-less cultivation is the technique of growing plants directly in normal culture solution including the trace elements without the use of soil.

Plant type	Absorption through
Algae and fungi	General body surface
Lichen	Rhizine
Marchantia	Rhizoid (unicellular)
Mosses	Multicellular Rhizoids
Gametophyte of fern	Unicellular rhizoids
Saprophyte of fern	Adventitious roots
Higher plants	Root hair
Parasitic plants	Haustorial root
Pinus	Mycorrhizal root

Some Useful Information for Entrance Exams

· Heterocysts – They are found in some blue-green algae (BGA)

E.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, etc. which helps in nitrogen fixation.

· Carolus Linnaeus – Farther of systematic Botany and Zoology. He introduced Binomial system of Nomenclature

· Ergotin – An alkaloid obtained from Claviceps purpura (A casual organism of ergot of rye and grasses). It is used as a powerful abortive drug. It checks bleeding during operation and childbirth.

· Mycorrhizal – A symbiotic association between algae and fungi in the roots of higher gymnosperms like pinus.

· Lichens: They are the symbiotic association of algae and fungi. They are the indicators of SO2 pollution. Asexual reproductive bodies in lichen are soredia and isidia.

· Mycoplasma or PPLOS (Pleuropneumonia-like organisms) – It causes little leaf of brinjal. They are the smallest living organisms without cell walls. However, Bacteria are the smallest living organisms with cell walls.

· Roots are generally geotropic (Positively) but in mangrove plants, they are negatively geotropic. These roots are called pneumatophores, which help in aeration. They contain small pores called pneumatophores.

· Spores of Funaria and equisetum contain chloroplast.

· Inulin (carbohydrate) is a soluble polysaccharide and composed of the polymer of fructose molecule. It is characteristic of family Compositae. It is found in the root of Dahlia.

· Cystolith – Crystals of CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate)

· Quinine is obtained from the bark of Cinchona officinalis and is used in the treatment of malaria.

· Viviparity means germination of seed with the fruit while still attached to the parent plant. E.g. mangrove plant.

· Xenia is the effect of Pollen grains on endosperm and Metaxenia is the effect of pollen grain outside the endosperm or the endosperm surrounding cells.

· Biosphere is composed of living organisms + lithosphere + Hydrosphere + atmosphere.

· Araucaria (Gymnosperm) – Monkey's puzzle plant.

· Coir of commerce is obtained from the mesocarp of coconut fruit Cocus nucifera.

· The development of an embryo directly from egg cell is or male gamete is called parthenogenesis. Parthenocarpy is the formation of fruit without fertilization.

· Cuscuta:
· Total stem parasite
· Has haustorial root
· Is a dicot but devoid of cotyledons.

· Dicot leaves have the reticulate type of venation however some dicots like Calophyllum and corymbium are with parallel venation. Whereas Monocots have parallel venation except for Colocasia, Dioscorea, and Smilax

· Root nodules are found in the root of legumes which contain a large number of Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azatobactor lives symbiotically root nodules contains red haemoglobin like pigment called leghemoglobin that helps in nitrogen fixation.

· Common wheat (Triticum aestivum) is hexaploid (2n = 42).

· Reserpine drug is obtained from the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina, which reduces high blood pressure.

· Cork of commerce is obtained from Quercus suber or oak tree.

· Canada balsam is obtained from Abies Balsam

· Hing is obtained from the roots of Ferula Assatoetida.

· Haematoxylin is obtained from the heartwood of Haematoxylon.

· Living fossils (plants present in living as well as fossil form) are Cycas and Ginkgo.

· Coralloid roots of Cycas are Apogeotropic (negatively geotropic).

· Monocots showing secondary growth are Yucca and dracaena
· Belongs to Liliaceae
· Amphivasal type of vascular bundle

· Colocasia:
· Belongs to Liliaceae
· Leaf has a pore called hydathode, Which help in guttation
· Its underground stem is called a corm.

· Colchicines (mitotic poison) is obtained colchicum that prevents spindle fibre formation during cell division

« Tallest angiosperm – Eucalyptus
« Tallest gymnosperm – Sequoia
« Largest flower – Rafflesia (Total root parasite)
« Largest fruit/ seed – Lodoicea (double coconut)
« Largest ovule, egg cell, and sperm – Cycas
« Century plant – Agave Americana (monocarpic)

· Monocarpic: Plants produce flowers and fruits once in life. E.g., Bamboo, Agave, and annuals plants such as rice, wheat, maize, etc

· Polycarpic: Plants produce flowers and fruits several times in life. E.g. Mango

· Maidenhair fern – Adiantum (walking fern)

· Maidenhair tree – Ginkgo (gymnosperm/living fossil)

· Insectivorous plants grow in nitrogen-deficient soil.

· Root nodules are formed in legumes (Papilionaceae) which contain Rhizobium (nitrogen-fixing bacteria) and red haemoglobin (Hemoglobin-like pigment that helps in nitrogen fixation).

· Theory of natural selection - Charles darwin.

· Pulsation theory - J.C. Bose

· Tunica corpus Theory - Schmidt

· Two kingdom system of classification – Carolus Linnaeus

· Red data Book: A book containing information on endangered plants and animals.

· Green data Book: A book with a list of rave plants growing in protected areas like gardens.

· True nuts: Oak not, cashew, litchi, pista, walnut (Juglans), Chestnut.

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES USED IN CYTOLOGY

· Microtome: instrument used to prepare thin sections for histology.
· Microscope was invented by Leeuwenhoek.
· Leeuwenhoek is the father of microscopy.
· Compound microscope is the generally used microscope invented by Janssen.
· Light microscope: most commonly used to examine histological sections by transillumination.
· Phase-contrast microscope: to study the living cells and tissues without fixing and staining them. Eg. chromosomes in the living cell.
· Dark-field microscope is used for visualizing the objects which do not reflect.
· An interference microscope is used for a qualitative study of cell components and cell constituents.
· Polarizing microscope: used to study the spindle fibre/centriole where plane-polarized light is used.
· Fluorescent microscope: High wavelength UV rays are used.
· Electron microscope: It was developed by M.Knoll and E.Ruska in Germany.
· Light source in the electron microscope is the beam of electrons.
· Ultrastructure of a cell organelle can best be studied through an Electron microscope.
· Electron microscope uses 3 lens
· Electron microscope works on the principle of de Broglie waves (or matter waves) i.e. wave nature of electrons.
· The electron microscope is better than a light microscope because an electron microscope has high resolving power and high magnification i.e. it uses higher energy electrons or fewer wavelength electrons.
· has revealed many small cell organelles like ribosomes, centrioles, microbodies, etc.

Comparison between Eye, Light microscope and Electron microscope

	Resolving power	Magnification
Eye	0.1 mm	1
Light microscope	0.1 micrometre	1000 – 1500
Electron microscope	0.1 nm	400,000 – 600,000

· Magnification power depends upon the Eye lens and Resolving power depends upon the diameter of the Objective lens [@ MERO]

· The process by which the amount of DNA, RNA, and protein can be known at a time is Phase–contrast microscopy.

· Cellulose of cell wall is specifically stained with zinc–chlor–iodide.

· Pectic substances can be stained by Methylene blue.

· Safranins stain lignified wall.
· Laboratory stain commonly used for cytological testing is Acetocarmine.
· Iodine test detects starch.
· Fuelgen test is specific for DNA.
· Fuelgen stain for DNA is Basic fuchsine.

Some Important Stains Used in Cytochemistry

· Haematoxylin: staining of the nucleus, cell wall (i.e. cellulose).
· Safranin: staining of the dead, thick lignified tissues like xylem.

· Crystal violet: Bacteria

· Sudan Black B/Sudan III: Lipids, Golgi bodies, glyoxysomes, sphaerosomes; suberin, cutin.

· Sudan IV: Suberin, cutin

· Iodine solution: Starch
· Leishman stain: Blood cells
· Eosine: Cytoplasm
· Fehling solution/Benedict solution/Tollen's reagent: Reducing sugar
· Schiff reagent: Histones, compound with – CHO group
· PAS (periodic acid Schiff): Carbohydrates
· Fuelgen stain/Basic fuschine: DNA/chromatin/chromosome.
· Acid fuchsine: Mitochondria
· Azure B/Toludine blue: RNA
· Millions reaction: Proteins/amino acids
· Acetocarmine: Chromosomes
· Aniline blue: Fungal hyphae.
Note: Janus green B is a vital stain for mitochondria.
· Poly Acryl-Amide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE) is used for the separation of proteins.
· X-ray diffraction/crystallography is a technique to determine the 3 Dimensional Positions of atoms in the molecules like protein and nucleic acids (DNA), i.e. structure of proteins and nucleic acids.
· Autoradiography is used to study the synthesis of molecules and to trace metabolic pathways.
· Autoradiography is the technique used for knowing the pathway of carbon assimilation.
· Subcellular components are separated by cell-fractionation/centrifugation.
· Mitochondria are separated from cells by differential centrifugation.
· Out of these stains, some stains can be used for staining living materials as they are non-toxic, such stains are called Vital stains. Eg. methylene blue, Janus green, etc.
· Southern blotting is the technique used for separating DNA fragments.
· Northern blotting is the technique used for separating RNA fragments.
Note: Western blotting is the confirmatory test for HIV.
But, the screening test for HIV is ELISA (Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay).
· Resolving limit of the human eye is 420 mm or But, resolving power is 100 mm.
· Serendipity is the chance for unexpected and intuitive discoveries. Eg: Archimede's principle, the discovery of penicillin by Flemming, Newton's law of gravitation, synthesis of urea by Wohler, etc.

Also, Read other Notes of other Lessons in Botany: